Introduction to Confucianism
Confucianism, one of the most influential philosophical and ethical systems in East Asian history, originated from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551-479 BCE). This school of thought has profoundly shaped Chinese culture, politics, and social norms for over two millennia, extending its influence to neighboring countries such as Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.
At its core, Confucianism is concerned with creating social harmony through the cultivation of virtue and the maintenance of proper relationships. It emphasizes personal and governmental morality, the correctness of social relationships, justice, and sincerity. Unlike many Western philosophical traditions that focus on abstract metaphysical questions, Confucianism is primarily practical, offering guidance on how individuals should conduct themselves in society and how rulers should govern their people.
The primary texts of Confucianism, known as the “Four Books and Five Classics,” form the canonical works of the tradition. The Four Books include the Analects (Lunyu), Mencius (Mengzi), the Great Learning (Daxue), and the Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong). The Five Classics consist of the Classic of Poetry (Shijing), the Book of Documents (Shujing), the Book of Rites (Liji), the Book of Changes (Yijing), and the Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu). These texts, along with commentaries by later Confucian scholars, have been the subject of intense study and interpretation throughout Chinese history.
Central to Confucian thought are several key concepts, including ren (benevolence or humaneness), li (propriety or ritual), xiao (filial piety), and yi (righteousness or justice). These concepts are interrelated and form the foundation of Confucian ethics and social philosophy.
The Concept of Yi in Confucianism
Among these core concepts, yi holds a special place in Confucian philosophy. Often translated as “righteousness,” “justice,” or “moral rightness,” yi is a complex and multifaceted idea that goes beyond simple notions of right and wrong. It encompasses the moral disposition to do good, the ability to discern what is right in a given situation, and the courage to act on that knowledge.
Yi is closely related to other Confucian virtues, particularly ren (benevolence) and li (propriety). While ren represents the inner moral disposition and li the outward expression of proper behavior, yi can be understood as the bridge between the two – the ability to apply moral principles to specific situations and act accordingly.
The concepts in the Analects are vague and not fully explained; they are much more developed in the Mencius and the Xunzi. The Xunzi in particular grants yi more importance than the previous works, making this concept and li essential for becoming a junzi (the Confucian ideal of moral excellence – the perfect gentleman, perfect statesman, etc.), and for a good life and governance. Xunzi seems to be a polemical work, attacking Mencius (and others, but mainly him). Ultimately, however, the Mencian interpretation of the Confucian concepts prevailed.
In the following sections, we will explore the concept of yi in more detail, examining its treatment in various Confucian texts and critically analyzing its implications for individual behavior, social relations, and governance.
Yi in the Analects
The Analects, a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to Confucius and his disciples, provides several key insights into the concept of yi.
In Book IV, Chapter 16 (Li Ren 16), Confucius states:
“The mind of the superior man is conversant with righteousness; the mind of the mean man is conversant with gain.” [1]
This passage illustrates a fundamental aspect of yi: its opposition to self-interest or personal gain. The junzi (superior person) is characterized by their commitment to moral rightness, even when it conflicts with personal advantage.
Another important passage is found in Book XII, Chapter 11 (Yan Yuan 11):
“The duke Jing, of Qi, asked Confucius about government. Confucius replied, ‘There is government, when the prince is prince, and the minister is minister; when the father is father, and the son is son.’ ‘Good!’ said the duke; ‘if, indeed, the prince be not prince, the minister not minister, the father not father, and the son not son, although I have my revenue, can I enjoy it?’” [1]
While this passage doesn’t explicitly mention yi, it embodies the Confucian idea that righteousness involves fulfilling one’s proper role in society. Yi, in this context, is closely tied to the concept of rectification of names (zhengming), where social harmony is achieved when everyone performs their societal duties correctly.
Book XV, Chapter 18 (Wei Ling Gong 18):
“The Master said, ‘The superior man in everything considers righteousness (yi) to be essential. He performs it according to the rules of propriety (li). He brings it forth in humility. He completes it with sincerity. This is indeed a superior man.'” [1]
This quote demonstrates how yi is intertwined with other Confucian virtues and is considered essential for the junzi (superior person).
Yi in Mencius
Mencius (372-289 BCE), often considered the second most important Confucian philosopher after Confucius, elaborated on the concept of yi, saying in contrast to the Legalist view that humans were innately evil and needed laws and strict punishments to keep them in line. For Mencius, humans were innately good, but needed to cultivate their goodness in order to realize their potential.
In Book VI, Part A (Gaozi I.10), he states:
“I like life, and I also like righteousness. If I cannot keep the two together, I will let life go and choose righteousness.” [1]
This powerful statement underscores the supreme importance of yi in Confucian thought. Mencius argues that righteousness is so essential that it should be prioritized even over one’s own life.
Mencius also links yi closely with ren (benevolence), considering them two sides of the same coin. In Book IV, Part A (Li Lou I.10), he says:
“Benevolence is the tranquil habitation of man, and righteousness is his straight path.” [1]
This metaphor suggests that while ren represents the ideal state of human nature, yi is the practical application of that nature in the world – the “straight path” one should follow.
Yi in Xunzi
Xunzi (308-230 BCE), another influential Confucian philosopher, also wrote about yi, saying that it was not something that came naturally, but had to be learned. He said that yi was based on two things: knowledge and action. One needed to have the right knowledge in order to know what was right and what was wrong, and then one needed to act on that knowledge. Contrary to Mencius, Xunzi argued that human nature is inherently selfish and that goodness must be cultivated through education and ritual.
In this context, Xunzi sees yi as a crucial tool for overcoming our natural inclinations towards self-interest. In the chapter “Human Nature is Bad,” he states:
“People’s nature is bad. Their goodness is a matter of deliberate effort. Now people’s nature is such that they are born with a fondness for profit in them. If they follow along with this, then struggle and contention will arise, and yielding and deference will perish therein. They are born with feelings of hate and dislike in them. If they follow along with these, then cruelty and villainy will arise, and loyalty and trustworthiness will perish therein.” [2]
For Xunzi, yi is not innate but must be learned and practiced. It serves as a counterbalance to our natural selfishness, allowing us to act in accordance with moral principles rather than mere self-interest. Ritual and yi bring order to chaos:
“The gentleman puts in good order what is orderly. He does not put in good order what is chaotic. What does this mean? I say: Ritual and yi are called orderly. What is not ritual and yi is called chaotic. So, the gentleman is one who puts in good order the practice of ritual and yi.” (“Nothing Improper”) [2]
Yi in The Great Learning (Daxue)
The Great Learning, one of the Four Books of Confucianism, emphasizes the interconnection between personal cultivation and societal order. While it doesn’t extensively discuss yi directly, it presents ideas that are closely related to the concept.
In the opening passage, it states:
“(I.A) The Dao of Great Learning lies in making bright virtue brilliant; in making the people new; in coming to rest at the limit of the good.” [3]
This idea of “coming to rest at the limit of the good” is closely related to yi. It suggests that righteousness involves not just knowing what is right, but consistently acting upon that knowledge.
The text also emphasizes the importance of sincerity and self-cultivation, which are integral to the practice of yi:
“(I.A) Affairs have their roots and branches, situations have their ends and beginnings. To know what comes first and what comes after is to be near the Dao.” [3]
This passage implies that yi involves understanding the proper order of things and acting in accordance with that understanding.
Yi in The Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong)
The Doctrine of the Mean, another of the Four Books, discusses the concept of balance and harmony, which is closely related to yi. It states:
“(2) Confucius said, ‘The junzi keeps to the mean in action; the small man reverses the mean in action. The mean of the junzi is such that he is always exact in his timeliness; the reversal of the mean of the small man is such that he will scruple at nothing.’” [3]
This passage suggests that yi involves finding and maintaining the appropriate balance in one’s actions and relationships. The junzi is one who can discern and follow this balanced path.
The text also emphasizes the importance of self-cultivation in achieving yi:
“(12) … The Dao of the junzi forges its basis on the common husband and wife; yet reaching to its ultimate nature, it delves into heaven and earth.” [3]
This passage implies that yi is not an abstract concept, but something that can be practiced in everyday life, while also having profound implications when fully realized.
Yi in The Book of Rites (Liji / Li Ki)
The Book of Rites, one of the Five Classics of Confucianism, provides detailed descriptions of proper conduct and rituals. While it doesn’t focus exclusively on yi, it presents the concept in relation to proper behavior and social roles. For example, in Book XXII. Ki Thung (Ji Tong), Or A Summary Account of Sacrifices, it states:
“13. In sacrifice there is a recognition of what belongs to ten relationships. There are seen in it the method of serving spiritual Beings; the righteousness between ruler and subject; the relation between father and son; the degrees of the noble and mean; the distance gradually increasing between relatives; the bestowment of rank and reward; the separate duties of husband and wife; impartiality in government affairs; the order to be observed between old and young; and the boundaries of high and low. These are what are called the (different duties in the) ten relationships.” [4]
This passage illustrates how yi is understood in terms of fulfilling one’s proper role in various relationships. Righteousness, in this context, involves behaving appropriately according to one’s position in the social hierarchy.
Critical Analysis of Yi in Confucian Thought
Having examined the concept of yi across various Confucian texts, we can now critically analyze its implications and potential limitations.
1. Moral Absolutism vs. Situational Ethics: One of the strengths of the Confucian concept of yi is its attempt to provide a stable moral foundation while also acknowledging the complexity of real-world situations. Unlike rigid moral absolutism, yi requires individuals to discern the right course of action in each unique context. However, this flexibility can also be a weakness, as it may lead to moral relativism if not properly balanced with firm ethical principles.
2. Individual vs. Collective Good: Confucian thought often emphasizes social harmony and collective well-being over individual interests. While this can promote a more cohesive society, it may also lead to the suppression of individual rights and freedoms. The concept of yi, with its focus on proper social roles, could potentially be used to justify maintaining an unjust status quo.
3. Gender and Social Hierarchy: The Confucian concept of yi is deeply embedded in traditional social hierarchies, including gender roles. As seen in the Book of Rites, righteousness for a husband is different from that of a wife, with the latter expected to be submissive. This raises questions about the compatibility of Confucian yi with modern notions of gender equality and social justice.
4. Tension between Yi and Ren: While Confucian philosophy often presents yi and ren (benevolence) as complementary, there can be tensions between these concepts. Yi, with its emphasis on righteousness and proper conduct, might sometimes conflict with ren‘s focus on compassion and kindness. This potential conflict raises the question of how to balance these virtues in practice.
5. Yi and Political Authority: Confucianism has historically been used to justify and maintain political authority in East Asian societies. The concept of yi, particularly in its emphasis on fulfilling one’s proper role, could be manipulated to demand unquestioning obedience to rulers. This raises concerns about the potential use of yi to suppress political dissent or justify authoritarian governance.
6. Universal vs. Culturally Specific: While Confucian thinkers often present yi as a universal concept, it is deeply rooted in Chinese cultural and historical contexts. This raises questions about its applicability in diverse cultural settings and its relevance in an increasingly globalized world.
7. Yi and Social Change: The Confucian concept of yi, with its emphasis on traditional roles and relationships, may struggle to accommodate rapid social change. In a world where social structures and roles are constantly evolving, a rigid interpretation of yi could become an obstacle to necessary adaptations.
8. Self-Cultivation and Social Responsibility: One of the strengths of the Confucian concept of yi is its emphasis on self-cultivation as a path to social harmony. By encouraging individuals to develop their moral character, Confucianism promotes a sense of personal responsibility for social well-being. However, this focus on individual cultivation might also downplay the importance of systemic social and political reforms.
The Rigidity of Later Confucianism and Lu Xun’s Critique
While classical Confucianism, as expounded by Confucius, Mencius, and Xunzi, presented yi as a dynamic concept requiring active moral discernment, later interpretations of Confucianism, particularly during the Song and Ming dynasties, tended to ossify these ideas into more rigid doctrines.
This trend towards rigidity was partly a result of the institutionalization of Confucianism as state orthodoxy. As Confucian ideas became the basis for imperial examinations and governance, there was a tendency to codify and standardize interpretations, often at the expense of the philosophy’s original flexibility and nuance.
The concept of yi, once a call for active moral engagement, sometimes devolved into a set of fixed rules about social roles and hierarchies. This rigidity extended to various aspects of life, from family relationships to social customs, often stifling individual expression and social progress.
Lu Xun (1881-1936), one of modern China’s most influential writers and thinkers, was a fierce critic of this calcified version of Confucianism. In his seminal work The True Story of Ah Q and other writings, Lu Xun portrayed the negative effects of rigid Confucian thinking on Chinese society.
While Lu Xun didn’t use the term yi directly in his critiques, his story The True Story of Ah Q illustrates the aforementioned negative effects. Ah Q’s “spiritual victories,” where he rationalizes his defeats and humiliations, can be seen as a perversion of yi, where adhering to social norms becomes more important than genuine moral behavior.
Lu Xun argued that the ossified Confucian traditions, including the strict interpretation of concepts like yi, had become a spiritual and intellectual straightjacket for the Chinese people. He saw this rigidity as a major factor in China’s stagnation and inability to modernize effectively in the face of Western imperialism.
In Diary of a Madman, Lu Xun metaphorically describes traditional Chinese culture, heavily influenced by dogmatic Confucianism, as cannibalistic – consuming the youth and vitality of the nation. This powerful critique suggests that the concept of yi, when turned into an inflexible doctrine, could be used to justify oppressive social norms and power structures (I’ve written another article about Lu Xun and his Diary of a Madman where I discuss it in more detail).
Lu Xun’s criticism extends to the way yi and other Confucian virtues had been used to enforce a strict social hierarchy and to suppress individual thought and creativity. He argued that the emphasis on conformity to predetermined roles, often justified in the name of yi, had led to a society that valued rote learning over critical thinking and blind obedience over moral reasoning.
This critique highlights a crucial point in the evolution of Confucian thought: the transformation of yi from a principle requiring active moral engagement to a tool for enforcing social conformity. It serves as a cautionary tale about the risks of turning philosophical concepts into dogma.
Lu Xun’s critique, along with those of other May Fourth Movement intellectuals, played a significant role in the re-evaluation of Confucianism in the 20th century. It prompted a reconsideration of how ancient concepts like yi could be interpreted and applied in a modern context.
This tension between the original, more flexible understanding of yi and its later, more rigid interpretations remains relevant today. As contemporary scholars and societies engage with Confucian ideas, there’s an ongoing debate about how to retain the valuable insights of concepts like yi while avoiding the pitfalls of dogmatism and social stagnation that Lu Xun so powerfully critiqued.
In light of this, any modern application of yi must grapple with these historical lessons. It requires striking a balance between maintaining ethical standards and allowing for the flexibility needed to address contemporary challenges and changing social norms. This critical perspective adds another layer to our understanding of yi, reminding us of the importance of continuously reexamining and reinterpreting philosophical concepts considering current realities.
Conclusion
The Confucian concept of yi, or righteousness, stands as a central pillar of East Asian ethical and philosophical thought. As we have seen through its treatment in various Confucian texts, yi is a multifaceted concept that encompasses moral discernment, appropriate behavior in social roles, and the courage to act on one’s convictions even in the face of adversity.
Yi‘s strength lies in its attempt to provide a flexible yet principled approach to ethics, one that recognizes the complexity of human situations while still offering moral guidance. It encourages individuals to cultivate their character and fulfill their social responsibilities, promoting a vision of society where personal development and social harmony are intertwined.
However, the concept is not without its challenges and potential limitations. Its embeddedness in traditional social hierarchies can conflict with modern notions of equality and individual rights. The potential tension between yi and other Confucian virtues, as well as its possible use to justify political authoritarianism, raise important questions about its application in contemporary contexts.
Moreover, as our world becomes increasingly interconnected and multicultural, the cultural specificity of yi presents both challenges and opportunities. While its roots in Chinese thought may limit its universal applicability, it also offers a unique perspective that can enrich global ethical discussions.
In conclusion, the Confucian concept of yi remains a powerful and influential idea in East Asian thought and beyond. Its emphasis on moral cultivation, social responsibility, and the courage to do what is right continues to resonate with many. However, like all philosophical concepts, it requires ongoing interpretation and critical examination to remain relevant in our ever-changing world. As we grapple with complex ethical challenges in the 21st century, the concept of yi can offer valuable insights, provided we engage with it critically and creatively, balancing its traditional wisdom with contemporary ethical considerations.
References
[1] https://ctext.org/confucianism
[2] Xunzi. The Complete Text. Translated, and with an Introduction by Eric L. Hutton. Princeton University Press. Princeton and Oxford, 2014 (p. 352; pp. 59-60)
[3] The Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean. Translation, commentary, and notes by Robert Eno, 2016 (p. 11; p. 38; p. 40)
[4] The Li Ki. Translated by James Legge, Blackmask Online, 2001 (p. 335)
Further reading
The Annalects of Confucius. An Online Teaching Translation by Robert Eno, 2015
Mencius. Translation, Notes, and Commentary by Robert Eno, 2016
Tan Gong (Liji, chapters 3-4). Translation, Notes, and Commentary by Robert Eno, 2016
Marcel Granet, Il pensiero cinese. Adelphi Edizioni, 1971/2018
David L. Hall, Roger T. Ames, Thinking Through Confucius, State University of New York Press, 1987
James Legge, The Chinese Classics, with a translation, critical and exegetical notes, prolegomena, and copious indexes. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/3100
Michael Nylan, The Five “Confucian” Classics, Yale University Press, 2001
Margherita Sportelli, Il confucianesimo. Xenia Edizioni, 2010
Epiphanius Wilson, Chinese Literature: Comprising the Analects of Confucius, the Sayings of Mencius, the Shi-King, the Travels of Fâ-Hien, and the Sorrows of Han. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/10056
A Synonym For "Rambling" 